A study in India-Cambodia Cultural Contacts form the 1st to 13rd century A.D.(proposed)

by Bhaktin Kaunteya 

Cambodia: A Historal Profile

Cambodia is one of the countries of Southeast Asia, which has maintained close relation with India since the beginning of the Christian Era. The arrival of Indian merchants and panditas has enriched the culture of this country. In ancient times the country was known as Kambujadesa. Isanapura was its capital in the seventh century A.D. From the ninth to thirteenth centuries the Angkor Empire flourished with its capital near the present day town of Siem Reap. The capital was known asYasodharapura as it was founded by the King Yasovarman. This indianized state has gradually extended from the first centuries of our era to the thirteenth century. The Angkor Empire covered a vast area to be known as the present day Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos. The splendor of the Sanskrit culture still remains in these Southeast Asian countries.

Importance of Sanskrit in Cambodia

The national language of Cambodia is Khmer, which is one of the oldest languages in mainland of Southeast Asia. Like another languages, it has undergone many changes. It is generally accepted that the Khmer language could not have developed effectively without its interaction with Sanskrit, the cultural language of the ancient times. Khmer and Sanskrit belong to two different language families, Austro-Asiatic and Indo-European respectively. In order to enrich its vocabulary, Khmer language borrowed a remarkable number of Sanskrit terms.

Cambodian stone inscription are the prime evidence of the past. They are actually the main sources for reconstructing the history of Cambodia, especially of Angkor period from the ninth century to thirteenth century of our era. The Cambodian inscriptions which have been discovered in a vast area which is known as present-day Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam have been written in two different languages: old Khmer and Sanskrit. The first one is the foreruner of the actual Khmer language whereas the later was cultural language of the mainland Southeast Asia of old time.

In the beginning of Christian era, Khmer language was only a spoken language. In other terms, at that time, the Khmer did not know how to write. The ancient Khmers borrowed the Indic script to record their own language. So the modern Khmer language is written in a script, which is borrowed from India. It is precisely the Grantha Brahmi script, which is the mother of modern Khmer script. Cambodai has also adopted the Devanagari script and Pallava Grantha script in order to develop its actual alphabets. In the present day Cambodian, about seventy percent words are borrowed from Sanskrit. Such common words as dhanagara(bank), durasabda(telepon),bhasa(language), etc are derived from Sanskrit.

The reason for such a high percentage of Sanskrit words in modern Khmer language is rooted in the past cultural contacts between India and Cambodia. In fact, Sanskrit was the court language of the Khmer Empire for more than thousand years. All the royal orders , land transactions, temple administration were recorded in Sanskrit. Slowly the Khmer language shared this role in course of centuries. So after seventh century we find inscriptions partly written in Sanskrit and partly in Khmer.

Objective of the Research

About 1250 inscriptions have been discovered from the Ancient Angkor Empire. The majority is written in Sanskrit . The aim of the present research is to explore various aspects of cultural relations between India and Cambodia as presented in the epigraphic literature of this country.

Impact of Sanskrit language in the development of Khmer language would be one of the main areas of my research. In this paper, I will explore various phases of linguistic development in which the Khmer manipulated words of Sanskrit origin, while maintaining autonomy over their own language. Many new linguistic aspect of Sanskrit language have been introduced in to Khmer such as corrrelatives, causative mode, passive voice, etc., but they all had to obey the syntactic rules of the Old Khmer. The study will focus on the evolution of the Khmer language’s structure as manifested in dated inscriptions from the sixth to the fourteenth century which was the time when the Khmer was transmuted from spoken to writen form. We divide the Sanskrit loanwords into two main groups- Grammatical and Non-grammatical. The fomer is further divided into two subgroups- intact and modified. The intact grammatical terms were used independently in the Khmer sentences whereas the modified ones were attached to some Khmer words. The correlatives yavat – tavat, for instance, appeared together in an early Khmer inscription, as it was used in Sanskrit. But in later inscription, its last member(tavat) was dropped out in order to adapt to the syntax of the local language. This serves as a yardstick to measure the development of the old Khmer language. Be another example the below table of borrowed terms of weights and measurement from Sanskrit

Influence of Sanskrit literature as reflected in the Cambodian inscription is another area of my research. As early as the mid-fifth century A.D., some characters of the Mahabharata were exploited for the eulogy of the ruling king in the inscription of Vat Luong Kau. Moreover, the seventh century inscription of Veal Kantel mentioned a donation of some copies of Ramayana and Mahabharata to a temple. I also propose to determine how far the great classical Sanskrit poets of ancient India such as Kaalidaasa, Bhaaravi and Maagha had influenced the Cambodia authors of these epigraphic texts. A stanza from the inscription of Oriental Mebon, for instance, remind us of the Raghuvamsham of Kaalidaasa. As in the conversation between King Dilipa and the lion, the verse attempt to define the duty of a king as following

A kavya sastriyadhyayana of the Cambodian Sanskrit inscription from various times and places will throw light on the influence of Sanskrit literature in the mainland Southeast Asia.

Another important point is research on the spread of various sastras, technical treatises of ancient India in the empire of Angkor. In fact, vyakarana sastra, dharmasastra, arthasastra, silpasastra, jyotisastra etc spread from very early times in ancient Cambodia.

Indian mythology depicted in Cambodian inscriptions is as important as my other two areas of research. While my research has not been extensive, I would like to answer the question to which extent the Hindu myths has inspired the authors of cambodian inscriptions. While the Khmer texts of inscriptions narrate the activity of living men and women, the Sanskrit ones prasise god and kings. While recording a genealogy of the ruling monarch as well as giving a eulogy of the king, a Cambodian inscripstions, likeits Indian counterpart, is inclined to refer Hindu myths. Below are two examples extracted from the inscription of Ta Prohm of twelfth century.

( She(mother of the king) is comparable to Vaagishvaree by her abundant speech, to Dhatri(the earth) by her firmness, to kamala by her beauty, to Arundhatee by her conduct par excellence and by her generosity as well as other virtues of hers she appeared to be the incarnation of Maittri.)

( If the ocean and the three worlds had been as a vast as his glory, Vishnu would not havee been able to conquer the earth rising up from the oceans, nor to cross the three worlds even with ten million steps.)

It is worth nothing that Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsa are the frequently cited works in Cambodia.

Sources of Research

Cambodian Sanskrit Inscriptions

Following is a brief survey of available Cambodian Sanskrit Inscriptions, which need to be further researched for reconstructing the patterns of Indo-Khmer culktural realtions.

The year 1879 marks the beginning of the study of Cambodian Inscriptions. Hendrick Kern’s work on Han Chey inscription stimulates the attention of many French scholars. Hendrick Kern is the first scholar to study Cambodian inscription.

It is difficult to underestimate the work which the French epigraphists, such as E.Aymonier, A.Barth, A. Bergaigne, L. Finot, G. Coedes had done in deciphering and translating both Sanskrit and Khmer inscriptions found in various parts of Angkor Empire. Abel Bergaigne left behind his work for his intimate colleague, August Barth, to publish posthumously. In Inscriptions Sancrites du Cambodge in 1893, Bergaigne deciphered and translated thirty inscriptions dating from the reign of Indravarman to that of Suryavarman II.

Auguste Barth published his Ínscriptions Sancrites du Cambodge (Sanskrit Inscriptions of Cambodia) in Notices et Extraits des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Nationale, tome 27, first fascicule, Paris Imprimerie Nationale,1885. Etienne Aymonier has also contributed a lot to the Cambodian Epigraphic study with his valuable academic works Le Cambodge volumes I-III (1900-1903). The study of Cambodian inscriptions advanced to a great extent with the works of Geoge Coedes. By 1969 Coedes completed the volume eight of his Inscription du Cambodge, giving the bibliographical detail of 1004 inscriptions. Since 1969 more than 250 new inscriptions have been found. Very few of these newly foun inscriptions have been deciphered and published so far. To offer an original research work on the subject that I propose, I shall use these unpublished inscriptions.

In the second half of the twentieth century, scholarly attention was focussed on judging the nature and extent of Indianization of ancient Cambodia. Some scholars have listed and analyzed the Sanskrit words borrowed by ancient Khmer language. In his article “Researches sur le Vocabulaire des Inscriptions Sanskrites du Cambodge“(BEFEO,52,1964), Kamleshwar Bhattacarya studied some fifty Sanskrit term used in Khmer inscriptions. Bhattacarya has ably demonstrated how these terms signify different shades of meaning not attested in Sanskrit literarture of ancient India. However, he has not examined the Khmer social, economic, and cultural contexts which were responsible for the semantic changes. Dominique Soutif has recently written his thesis on the Sanskrit vocabulary in Khmer language. He has examined more terms, but has not eludicated the social contexts of the changes. Saverous Pou has devoted herself to the study of Old Khmer phonetics and grammar and prepared a valuable dictionary of old Khmer language dictionary. Long Seam’s dictionary of pre-Angkor inscriptions also may be cited here. These works show the presence of Sanskrit loan words in the Old Khmer language, but do not trace out the development of the Khmer language in course of the last fifteen hundred years.

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Proposed Layout of Research

The proposed research work is expected to result into monograph containing the following chapters.

Introduction

Chapter One

India-Cambodia Cultural Dialogue(1st-13rd century)

Chapter Two

Overview of the Sanskrit language Inscriptions of Ancient Cambodia

Chapter Three

Influence of the Ramayana on the Sanskrit Inscription of Ancient Cambodia

Chapter Four

The Mahabharata as reflected in the Sanskrit Inscriptions of Ancient cambodia

Chapter Five

Indian Shastras and Ancient Cambodian Epigraphy

Chapter Six

Indian Religious Life as reflected in Cambodian Sanskrit Epigraphy

Conclusion

Bibliography

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